The universal constants

There are four constants known as "universal" comprehending in their scope the entire Universe, in the immensely large and the infinitesimally small aspect of the Cosmos. The constant h, named after the German scientist Max Planck, applies to the world of the infinitesimal and can be defined as the minimum possible unit of energy contained within the electromagnetic waves; larger amounts of energy in the waves can be found only in multiples of the constant h.

The gravitational constant G applies to the force of attraction between massive bodies as expressed by Newton law which established the value of the force of attraction Fg between two bodies of mass M and m in the equation

Fg = G M m/d ² (the distance "d" separating them, squared). The constant G is represented in units of the mks system as was later found by Cavendish in the form M ³ /Kg/sec ²

In the new atomic model G can be understood to be the value of the force of action in the gravity wave when the units representing the masses and the distance that separate them are made equal to one. There are two other universal constants, one is k, named after the Austrian scientist Ludwig Boltzmann which govern the laws of thermodynamic and applies to the action of a very large number of atoms. Boltzmann constant k establishes the relation existing within a system between the energy of heat applied to it and the rising of its temperature measured in degrees Kelvins.

The constant k represents the amount of energy needed to raise a system composed by many molecules of gas by one degree of temperature measured in degrees Kelvins of absolute temperature. Since we are more interested here in the behavior of sources of energy acting on each other in a one to one relationship in the contest of a proposed new model of the atom, we will consider the Boltzman constant which is regulating the action between a large number of them in another chapter. The fourth universal constant C represents the velocity of light, which has been found experimentally to be constant and equal approximately to 300,000 km per second, when traveling in an empty space. Michelson and Morley found in a now farnous experiment, that the velocity C remains constant even when the relative velocity of the observer is moving toward or away from the original source of [ight. On this astonishing discovery Albert Einstein built his revolutionary theory of relativity. Einstein special theory of relativity as well as his general theory of relativity had a profound effect on physical science as a whole, by changing  the common understanding of temporal and spatial relations and setting a new path where time becomes a coordinate with space of the system and where the constant C is its main coordinator as an invariant factor in the universe. The constant C, representing the speed of light in the cosmic vacuum that exhibits the same behavior generally found in the physical substance of rnatter, where waves expand with a velocity that is always constant for that particular medium in which they were generated. It was logical therefore to assume that an electromagnetic wave had to be a similar phenomenon, a movement in the particles of a medium generated by energetic forces. To this medium conceived in the past as the "Ether" and exhibiting properties attributed to matter we can easily substitute the idea of an all comprehensive Universal substance governed by its own particular laws. The constant velocity C of the electromagnetic waves in a substantial field can, with the constant G, be expressed and analyzed within the hypothesis advanced in our proposed new atomic model. In dealing with these universal constants we are now faced with dimensions so small, that in order to handle them, we must use a system of measurement called "natural units," that was developed by Planck in the study of particle physics. (see "Universal Constants in Physics", by Gilles Cohen-Tannoudji, page 105-107, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1993). In this system, the value of h (Planck constant) and C (velocity of light) was made equal to one. There is only one fundamental physical quantity in this system which is energy, length and time becoming its derived quantities. A system that reduces everything to energy is bound to work perfectly well with a new atomic model where matter exist only as variations in the intensity of a field measured in energy units. Mass in the system has a dimensional content of energy; length and time have the dimensional content of the reciprocal of energy. The unit of energy used in the system is the gigaelectrovolt GeV or 1,000,000,000 eV

One GeV is approximately equal to the mass of the proton.

One GeV ^-l = 10 ^-24 sec         One GeV ^-1 = 10 ^-15 m  (see "Universal Constants in Physics", by Gilles Cohen-Tannoudji)
 

The energy of the electron when at rest was found experimentally to be equal to:

Ee =0.51 x 10 ^-3 GeV